Neurotransmitter: Neuron and Hormones Function

What Is Neurotransmitter? Neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released from a nerve cell which thereby transmits an impulse from a nerve cell to another nerve, muscle, organ or other tissue. (Webster new world medicine dictionary. http://www. medterms. com/script/main/art. asp? articlekey=9973) What are Hormones? Hormones are chemicals that carry messages from organs of your body to your cells. The glands that secrete hormones are part of the endocrine system (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals and pancreas, to name a few) and work in large part to keep the body’s natural balance in check. (Gary Gills, former about. com January 15, 2009. ttp://type1diabetes. about. com/od/glossaryofdiabetesterms/g/Hormones. ht Give an explanation of two similarities and two differences in how Neurotransmitter and hormones function as messenger. It is believed that the brain contains several hundred different types of chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) that act as communication agents between different brain cells. These chemical messengers are molecular substances that can affect mood, appetite, anxiety, sleep, heart rate, temperature, aggression, fear and many other psychological and physical occurrences. Two differences between neurotransmitter and hormones is . Neurotransmitter has an instantaneously reaction while hormones have a late reaction. This is so because hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands in the bloodstream away from their function site and are carried by the circulation (bloodstream) to the target cell where they are effective. While Neurotransmitter is released at a specialized region of nerve cells and have to diffuses over a small gap (synaptic cleft) to the target cell. 2. Hormones have a long lasting reaction while Neurotransmitters has a short time reaction. http://www. differencebetween. net/science/difference-between-enzymes-and-hormones/

Implementation of Global Strategy

Manag Int Rev (2011) 51:179–192 DOI 10. 1007/s11575-011-0071-6 R e s e a R c h a Rt i c l e Effective? Global? Strategy? Implementation Structural? and? Process? Choices? Facilitating? Global? Integration? and? Coordination Attila? Yaprak?  ·? Shichun? Xu?  ·? Erin? Cavusgil Abstract:? 0 0 this article offers a contingency framework of global strategy implementation effectiveness on firm performance. The research question we seek to address is what the structural and process requirements are for MNEs to successfully implement global strategy through increased efficiency and effectiveness of integration and coordination across world markets.Our central premise is that MNEs’ capabilities in establishing supporting structural and process mechanisms will enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of implementing their global strategies which would, in turn, lead to better firm performance. Keywords:? Integration and coordination  · Global strategy  · Firm performance  · contingency framework Received:? 25. 12. 2009 / Revised:? 15. 08. 2010 / Accepted:? 11. 10. 2010 / Published? online: 02. 04. 2011  © Gabler-Verlag 2011 Prof. A. Yaprak (? ) Department of Marketing, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA e-mail: Attila. [email  protected] edu Asst. Prof. S. Xu Department of Marketing and Logistics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA Asst. Prof. E. Cavusgil Department of Marketing, University of Michigan-Flint, Flint, USA 180 A. Yaprak et al. Introduction The globalization of the world economy and markets has given rise to the growth of multinational enterprises (MNEs). With the expanded geographical scope and dispersed operations across national borders, managing MNEs effectively has become a challenging task for managers.As such, numerous studies have been conducted to understand what contributes to the success of MNEs in the global market. Many studies have adopted the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm as the theoretical basis of s uch an exploration, arguing that the competitive advantage of MNEs is sourced primarily in their ability to access and acquire rare and inimitable resources that create better value for customers around the world (e. g. Peng et al. 2008). These resources are considered indicators of firm performance levels in the global market (Lu et al. 010; Peng et al. 2008). While RBV has been instrumental in explaining the performance differences among MNEs, arguments have been advanced that the mere possession of resources is insufficient to generate superior performance (Sirmon et al. 2007). For instance, Barney and Arikan (2006) state that assuming appropriate strategic action will automatically follow from the recognition of valuable resources within the firm is an intellectually naive assumption.Specifically, how resources can be used through strategic actions to create superior value to create a competitive advantage for the firm remains unclear (Priem and Butler 2001). While firm resource s have a more or less direct impact on the strategic courses of action a firm may pursue, implementation of such strategies to realize value creation potential remains an under-researched topic (Barney and Arikan 2006). This deficiency in the literature has led to the distinction between resources and capabilities. Lu et al. (2010) propose that resources and capabilities are clearly distinguishable from each other.While Grant (1991) defined resources as stocks of tangible and intangible assets which firms use to convert into products and services while capabilities are viewed as intermediate goods generated by the firm to enhance the productivity of resources (Amit and Schoemaker 1993). As such, capabilities are different from resources since they act as enablers for firms to create value more effectively from the resources they possess. This distinction between resources and capabilities has encouraged researchers to examine the effect of MNEs’ capabilities on firm performan ce.Research regarding the capabilities of MNEs has mostly focused on those that facilitate global strategy formulation. For example, Elango and Pattnaik (2007) propose that networking capabilities have a direct impact on the internationalization strategy of the firm. Peng et al. (2008) articulates a framework in which firm resources and capabilities are viewed as one of three antecedents of a firm’s international business strategy (the other two being industry based competition and institutional conditions and transitions).Thus, the current literature sheds light only on how the capabilities of MNEs enable them to formulate appropriate strategic choices that match their resources with opportunities in their external, that is, their global, environment. However, mechanisms that ensure successful implementation of the chosen strategies remain unclear. While we assume that MNEs should be able to establish appropriate structures to match their strategies, research has shown that there is a lot of incongruence between MNE strategy and structure (Duysters and Hagedoorn 2001).Effective Global Strategy Implementation 181 Based on this backdrop and drawing from the strategic fit literature, the purpose of this paper is to offer a contingency framework of global strategy implementation effectiveness on firm performance. The research question we seek to answer is what the structural and process requirements are for MNEs to successfully implement global strategy through increased efficiency and effectiveness of integration and coordination across world markets.Our central premise is that MNEs’ capabilities in establishing supporting structural and process mechanisms will enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of implementing their global strategies which would, in turn, lead to better firm performance. That is, we argue that firms need to achieve a harmonious configuration among strategy, structure, and process to better deliver superior value from the res ources they possess. The remainder of this article is organized as follows.After reviewing the literature and presenting a comprehensive picture of the integration and coordination dimensions of global strategy, we offer propositions for future research. We discuss the merits of exploring each of these and conclude with suggestions for managerial practice. Conceptualizations? of? Global? Strategy The globalization of the world economy has pushed many organizations, particularly those MNEs with abundant resources, to rethink how they compete in this expanded market.The increasingly interdependent financial, product, and labor markets are all advancing at different paces towards a â€Å"globalized† system (Buckley and Ghauri 2004). As the political, economic, and cultural forces increasingly promote a global environment, many industries have become global in nature (Morrison and Roth 1992; Kim et al. 2003). Such global industries are largely driven by three structural forces: e conomies of scale, comparative advantage, and standardized markets (Birkinshaw et al. 1995).Firms competing in such industries have gradually been adopting a global strategy in which they no longer view their subsidiaries located across the world as independent subunits, but as a highly interdependent network (Kim and Hwang 1992). Global strategy is thus characterized as developing competitive advantage through operating in interdependent national markets by exploiting differences in national resource endowments, the flexibility of MNC networks, and economies of scale and scope, as well as learning (Malnight 1996).Extant literature suggests that the strategic choice of a firm competing in global markets is a function of firm traits and aptitudes and market contexts (Peng et al. 2008). The positive relationship between financial and market performance and global strategy is also well documented in the literature (Roth 1992; Kim et al. 2003). We further argue that these relationships are mediated by the interplay among strategy, structure and processes of the firm (Fig. 1). We now discuss these, in turn. Firm Traits and Aptitudes Firm traits and aptitudes refer to the resources and capabilities that a firm possesses to compete in the global marketplace.These resources and capabilities can take on different forms such as culture, knowledge, orientation, experiences, and learning capability. 182 A. Yaprak et al. Firm Traits Aptitudes Innovative Culture Firm's strategic creativity in its marketing strategy making Latitude in autonomy vs. control Local Embeddedness Depth in local market knowledge Local market orientation International Embeddedness International Orientation International Experience Firm Capabilities in Cross-subsidization (Leverage) Organizational learning Market Contexts Degree of international integration Degree of similarity with the primary international marketProcesses Degree of integration of strategic design and implementation [Integration vs. Independence] Configuration Perspective Strategy Degree of standardization . n marketing strategy [Standardization vs. Adaption] Coordination / Integration Strategy Performance Structure Degree of Concentration of value chain activities [Concentration vs. Dispersion] Contingency Perspective Fig.? 1: Strategy, structure, and processes as mediators of the firm, market and performance relationship. (Source: Constructed by the authors from Lim et al. 2006), Menon et al. (1999), Ozsomer and Prussia (2000), Solberg (2000), Xu et al. (2006), Zou and Cavusgil (2002)) Studies suggest that a fundamental antecedent to superior performance is the corporate culture of the firm, particularly those associated with innovation capabilities. They show that innovative culture, reflected by the firm’s creativity in its marketing strategy making, is a key ingredient in influencing strategic performance. They further show that focus on effective se of the firm’s marketing assets and capabi lities and prudent resource commitments across markets will upgrade its cross-market integration skills, and thereby enhance its market performance (Menon et al. 1999). The firm’s ability in reverse-innovating products, distributing them globally, and its skills in expanding opportunities in difficult markets and pioneering worthy segments in different types of market settings, all manifestations of creative strategy making, will also upgrade its market performance (Immelt et al. 009). A second key firm trait involves local market embeddedness. Local market orientation underscored by increasing depth of local market knowledge will lead to higher levels of global market penetration. When coupled with the ability to adapt to cultural diversity and affinity to the local market intermediaries’ aspirations to extract common denominators for many markets, this will likely lead to higher degrees of strategy effectiveness (Solberg 2000). Equally important is international embe ddedness.International orientation, bolstered by previous international business and/or marketing experience in the major markets of the firm will give the firm latitude in integrating and coordinating its competitive moves across world markets and thus lead to network-wide efficiencies, effectiveness and synergies. This valuable organizational resource will also help simplify worldwide planning and help establish the firm’s brands with a consistent image across markets; thereby enhancing the firm’s marketing strategy performance (Zou and Cavusgil 2002). Effective Global Strategy Implementation 83 Firm capabilities in organizational learning and cross-subsidization will affect global market performance positively. The firm’s ability to learn more and faster than its competitors and from its alliance partners in foreign markets will advance its marketing capabilities. Its skills in leveraging resources, information, experience, and ideas across markets and affili ates, sacrificing competitive gains in some markets for the benefit of other markets, and sharing organizational learning gains across its affiliate network will help the firm maintain a strong configural advantage, nd will improve the firm’s marketing strategy performance (Craig and Douglas 2000; hamel 1991; Lim et al. 2006). In light of these arguments, we propose that: P1: Firm traits, such as innovative culture and strategic creativity and firm aptitudes such as local and international embeddedness, along with capabilities in organizational learning and cross-subsidization, will enhance the adoption of a global strategy, which in turn, will positively influence firm performance. Market Contexts Porter (1990) suggests that the industry in which a firm finds itself competing largely determines its strategic choices.Market contexts specifically examine the external environment and the opportunities it presents to the firm. Market contexts, such as global industry and the fir m’s global orientation and international experience, will also give firms an incentive to adopt a global strategy which will, in turn, enhance marketing strategy performance. One argument here is that global strategy seeks benefits from both comparative and competitive advantages by leveraging economies of scale derived from common market demand and dispersion of operations across world markets to benefit from factor cost differences (Kim et al. 003). The degree of similarity among markets will incentivize firms to adopt a globally-integrated strategy which will lead to efficiencies and strategy effectiveness, and this will improve performance (Zou and Cavusgil 2002). Participation in multiple markets offers the firm the ability to identify different opportunities with which to exploit its resources. For example, the firm can extend its product life cycle by launching products with different pacings across global markets. Market contexts offer greater flexibility in implement ing global business battles against competitors.Participation in multiple markets also helps firms identify different value chain activity locations based on the unique comparative advantages of each location. The degree of integration in the firm’s markets will foster easier leveraging of resources and capabilities and will ease learning from these. As the firm expands increasingly into dissimilar markets, however, it will be inspired to develop creative solutions, innovative marketing mix adaptations, and imaginative strategies.The degree of coordination and differentiation in marketing strategies the firm is able to implement in global markets and its ability to harmonize competitive tactics across regions will also improve performance (Lim et al. 2006; Schilke et al. 2009). Since markets are dynamic, their changing nature will require emerging strategic mechanisms, inspiring the firm toward developing creative market-based learning, rather than deliberative solutions (Ozs omer and Prussia 2000; Vorhies and Morgan 2005). Thus, we propose that: 184 A. Yaprak et al.P2: Similarities and dissimilarities among the firm’s market contexts will move the firm toward adopting a global strategy, which in turn, will enhance marketing strategy performance. Integration and Coordination in Global Strategy and Implementation As the competitive advantage in adopting a global strategy lies in the firms’ ability to effectively link competitive actions across national markets, global integration becomes a critical task in coping with the challenges posed by the integrated global competitive arena (Kim et al. 2003).Thus, firms adopting a globally integrated strategy seek to integrate their globally-dispersed activities in a manner that will help them develop combinations of comparative (that is, location-specific) and competitive (that is, firm-specific) advantages that will foster more effective responses to cross-national competitive forces (Roth and Schwe iger 1991). Global integration, that is the coordination and control of business operations and functions across national borders (Cray 1984), is viewed as the ideal indicator of the degree of comparative and competitive advantage combinations within the firm (Kobrin 1991; Rangan and Sengul 2009).Roth and Schweiger (1991) describe these two sources of advantage in a global strategy as that developed through international scale economies and economies of scope (competitive), and that which results from exploiting the differences in factor costs across country locations (comparative). Comparative advantage arises from the geographic configuration of location choices while competitive advantage resides in geographic coordination or organization (Rangan and Sengul 2009). Thus, integration allows the firm to disperse its value-adding activities across national markets while integrating some of these within the firm’s own boundaries.Two major activities in achieving global integrat ion goals are coordination and control (Kim et al. 2003). The purpose of coordination is to achieve concerted action among the subunits and functional areas toward a unified organizational goal (Roth and Schweiger 1991). Coordination is essential in managing the interdependencies across the subunits of an organization. As coordination effort in an international business organization can range from low to high, the demand of a global strategy puts its coordination effort on the high end.A high degree of coordination implies that functional activities are tightly linked with one another and that these are tightly-integrated across geographic locations (Roth 1992). This integration leads to configural advantage (Craig and Douglas 2000). Thus, we propose that: P3: Superior performance of the MNE’s global strategy will be positively linked to increased integration and coordination of its value chain activities; that is, to the degree of its configural advantage.Structural and Proc ess Requirements for Global Integration and Coordination Even though MNEs enjoy the benefit of abundant resources and capabilities coming from firm traits and aptitudes and the opportunities their environments present, designing the organizational structures and processes that best support the strategies they deploy that Effective Global Strategy Implementation 185 use the resources and capabilities that suit the demand of their external opportunities is mandatory in realizing superior performance.In fact, the task of management is to formulate strategies based on the resources and capabilities of the firm and match them with identifiable opportunities in the external environment by selective market entry. Strategy, as such, is seen as an outcome of the process of identifying the alignment of the resources and capabilities of the firm and the opportunities present in the environment. Implementing such a strategy relies primarily on supporting the organizational structures and proces ses that are in place.Without the appropriate strategy, processes and structure, firm traits and aptitudes and market contexts may each present benefits by themselves, but they may also lead to detrimental performance when inappropriately combined. As such, firms need to examine both their internal strengths and the external opportunities they face and attempt to achieve the best synergy between these two. While strategy is mostly focused on identifying market opportunities that best utilize the resources of the firm, the reverse is also possible; the firm may identify opportunities in the environment but find that it lacks the resources to exploit these.Unique combinations of these structure and strategy elements will yield unique levels of strategic performance (Olson et al. 2005). Interrelationships among the internationalizing firm’s strategy, structure, and processes are positively associated with market performance and will lead to strategy implementation types that can serve as major sources of sustainable global competitive advantage (Xu et al. 2006). Structure A critical determinant of success in implementing a global strategy is the development of effective structures that will carry firm strategy toward superior performance.Organizational structural forces are crucial to effectively deploying and integrating firm resources (Fang and Zou 2009). One element of this effort is the global configuration of value chain activities such that achievement of the firm’s objectives is rationalized. Sourced in competitive advantage theory (Porter 1990), this effort involves selectively concentrating and dispersing activities across the firm’s global network so that it can differentiate, pursue cost efficiencies, focus on market niches, and achieve economies of scale in doing so (Roth 1992).It also involves assigning various roles to the firm’s affiliates so that they will serve the firm’s objectives in the most effective manner. For instance, subsidiaries might play such roles as strategic leader, implementer, and contributor, depending on their level of local competencies and the strategic importance of their markets to the firm or can be early or late movers in carrying the firm’s products throughout its network, depending on their special strengths and competitive advantages (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989, 1992).The firm’s aims with regard to each local market as it incrementally internationalizes, and its desire for control over affiliates vs. encouragement of autonomy in local markets, can lead to subsidiary roles as local barons or implementers of headquarters strategies (Solberg 2000). These roles can then create internationalizing networks modeled as federations, confederations, and the United Nations (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989; solberg 2000). Of the different dimensions of organizational structure, three dimensions are recognized as the most influential on global integration and coordina tion: formalization, departmen- 186A. Yaprak et al. talization, and centralization. Formalization is defined as the degree to which organizational norms are defined explicitly (Hall 1982). It essentially prescribes the acceptable and unacceptable behaviors within an organization. Roth and Schweiger (1991) argue that formalization boosts integration and coordination efforts by decreasing the discretion of the managers at both the headquarters and the subsidiary levels. Formalization reduces the direct involvement of the headquarters in subsidiaries by offering rules and procedures that fertilize the emergence of dominant logic within the organization.This dominant logic fosters similar actions from managers at different geographic locations. In addition, firms also increase integration efficiency by formalizing the ways functional activities are performed across units. By establishing standardized procedures, policies and rules, the effectiveness of integration will increase as the p rocess of conducting activities is codified, a form of coordination by standardization (Kim et al. 2003). Centralization is concerned with decision making authority and is regarded as an important means of reaching coordination goals within an MNE (Roth and Schweiger 1991).A global strategy leads to higher levels of interdependencies among the subunits within a global organization. This would require a higher level of coordination among the functional activities. Adopting a centralization structure in an MNE means that critical decision-making lies at the top management level because better understanding of the various activities and units scattered around the world is possible there (Kim et al. 2003). It could be argued that while formalization facilitates coordination of global integration, centralization plays more of a role in the control of global integration.The assumption here is that with a decentralized structure, each subunit will focus on achieving its individual goals an d tasks resulting in the sacrifice of the overall goal of the organization. Formalization and centralization along the firm’s value chain configuration will also affect its strategic behavioral orientations, such as customer, competitor, and innovationorientation, and by extension, the firm’s strategic performance. Departmentalization is defined as the degree to which the tasks are confined to a predetermined domain and members of departments are isolated from cross-functional interactions (Mintzberg et al. 1976).Departmentalization is believed to be detrimental to the integration and coordination effectiveness in business. It is argued that resource integration, especially as it involves knowledge integration, is an essential way to generate new ideas, particularly for new product development purposes. By isolating the subunits or functions from each other, members of the organization lose sight of the overall picture and the unique goals of the organization. Thus, we propose that: P4: Formalization and centralization of structure will positively influence integration and coordination effectiveness in firms that adopt a global strategy.P5: Departmentalization of structure will negatively influence integration and coordination effectiveness in firms that adopt a global strategy. Processes The major characterization of global strategy is focused on the integration of the firm’s global network of activities and the coordination of functions and resources that will yield enhanced strategy performance. This perspective is concerned with whether subsidiaries Effective Global Strategy Implementation 187 are standalone profit centers or parts of a more holistic design of deliberately integrated units (Lim et al. 2006).Its focus is on the dependence of affiliates on the headquarters and the interdependence among the subsidiaries for materials, resources, learning, efficiencies, and company-wide decision-making (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989; Lim et al . 2006). When combined with the market offering and the concentration dimensions of strategy (Lim et al. 2006), and under the umbrella of contingency theory (Van de Ven and Drazin 1985), this perspective provides a window into our understanding of the spread of strategic autonomy, functional and operative control over affiliates, resource sharing, and cross-market consultation in he internationalizing firm. Dependence of the firm on its local affiliate or subsidiary for market knowledge due to lack of its own proficiency would lead the firm, for instance, to nurture interdependencies with its affiliates and strategic control over them. Low dependence of the subsidiaries on the headquarters, along with low interdependence among subsidiaries and high subsidiary autonomy are associated with worldwide mandates assigned to subsidiaries (Lim et al. 2006). The organizational processes of MNEs largely involve the control aspects of organizational activities.Gencturk and Aulakh (1995) classi fy formal control mechanisms as market-based and hierarchy-based. Birkinshaw and Morrison (1995) add the heterarchy model as an alternative control process. While the market-based control process intuitively works against the goal of integration and coordination, the hierarchy- and the heterarchybased control mechanisms facilitate integration and coordination to a greater degree. We argue, however, that the heterarchy-based control process is more appropriate for a global strategy.First, the hierarchy concept is incongruous with interdependence among the various regional and strategic business units that make up the global enterprise. Second, the hierarchy model implies unidirectional control, imposed by the headquarters over the subsidiary units, a notion incompatible with global integration. Finally, global integration requires stability and instrumentality to succeed and at least one of these, instrumentality, is less present in the hierarchy model than the other models of contro l.The heterarchy control model, in contrast, is based on three characteristics that global integration requires: dispersion of resources and capabilities; existence of lateral relationships among subunits; and coordinated activities. We feel that all three of these are consistent with the coordination and integration efforts of an MNE and foster greater integration. Thus, we propose that: P6: Adoption of a heterarchy-based control model will positively influence the integration and coordination effectiveness of firms that adopt a global strategy.The Interaction of Strategy, Structure, and Process While each of strategy, structure, and process may have a direct impact on firm performance, the interaction among the three may exert even greater influence on that performance. Viewing strategy as matching resources with the environment focuses essentially on strategy formulation. This relies largely on the fit of the external environment with the firm. However, strategy implementation re quires achieving the firm’s intended benefit. It relies more on the internal fit within the organization; that is, the fit between structure and processes (Venkatraman and Camillus 1984).Venkatraman and Camillus (1984) argue 188 A. Yaprak et al. that effective implementation of any strategy requires congruence among a large number of internal elements. This implies that the supporting role of structure and process cannot be separated from each other. In addition, the dominant logic in the strategic management literature is that strategy is the overriding concern, while structure and process are derived from strategy. Strategic performance is determined by how effectively the firm’s strategy is implemented, and by extension, how marketing objectives are accomplished (Olson et al. 2005).While there are many dimensions to performance measurement, financial and non-financial measurement metrics are typically used in strategy performance contexts. Among these are profitabil ity, ROI, and sales volume, as well as the strategic position of the firm relative to its most relevant competitor, its relative market share in key markets, and expectations compared to relevant competitors and satisfaction with achieved expectations (Olson et al. 2005; Zou and Cavusgil 2002). We argue that a holistic view should be used in measuring strategic performance; a measure that would incorporate both financial and non-financial considerations.We also argue that, all things considered, the strategy, concentration, and integration/coordination conceptualizations of global strategy will mediate the relationship between the firm and market antecedents of performance and strategic performance itself. This is evidenced by recent research which shows that the interplay of strategy, structure and processes lead to higher levels of performance when they are mediated by co-alignment of strategy with the market context (Xu et al. 2006). Thus, we propose that: P7: Firm and market ant ecedents of firm performance will be mediated by the interplay among the strategy, structure, nd process components of internationalizing firms. The Capability of Configuring Strategy, Structure, and Process The capability of an MNE to successfully configure a harmonious strategy, structure, and process could be a source of competitive advantage. Unlike the tangible resources such as plant and raw materials, intangible resources and capabilities such as the ability to align structural and process dimensions with the chosen strategy cannot be easily copied or substituted. When skillfully leveraged, these capabilities offer bases of competitive advantage and increase the effectiveness and efficiency in implementing a chosen strategy.Capability development is viewed as path dependent (Nelson and Winter 1982). Firms accumulate knowledge and capabilities by learning by doing. Dosi et al. (1990) views the firm as a historic entity in which repetitive activities offer the opportunity to le arn and form routines and search processes. In this perspective, capabilities are viewed as emerging from the past history of learning by doing. Firms may also actively invest in organizational structures and processes to make constant improvements of routines and practices (Ethiraj et al. 2005).As such, capabilities are a combined result of passive learning by doing and active investment in learning. MNEs with extensive internationalization experiences would have the opportunity to nurture the capability to align their structure and process with their strategies. As such, we propose that: Effective Global Strategy Implementation 189 P8: The international experience of an MNE will be positively associated with its capabilities to configure organizationally effective strategy, structure, and process combinations. Discussion? and? Suggestions? or? Future? Research The relationship between global strategy making and its performance outcomes has generated a rich stream of research in th e extant literature during the last few decades. This interest was heightened recently with the explosive growth in international business activity, especially by internationalizing firms from the emerging economies. This recent interest has resulted in conceptual developments attempting to explain the roles of various antecedents in explaining strategic performance and empirical testing of these frameworks (e. . , Katsikeas et al. 2006; Lim et al. 2006; solberg 2000; Zou and Cavusgil 2002). More recent work has explored the significance of the roles played by various moderators in explaining the strength of the antecedents-performance relationship (Schilke et al. 2009). All of these studies have deepened our understanding of the strategy making-performance relationship, but we do not yet have a comprehensive picture of many of the actors that might mediate this relationship. In this paper, we attempt to contribute to this void by developing one such picture.We propose that firm tra its and market contexts will positively affect strategic performance, but this relationship should be enhanced when mediated by the interplay among the strategy (standardization vs adaptation), structure (concentration vs dispersion), and process (integration vs independence) dimensions of strategy making (Lim et al. 2006). We offer propositions about each of these dimensions and the interface they have with the antecedents and outcomes of strategy formulation. Our work is exploratory and thus aims at offering a conceptual framework that should lead to empirical research.Some empirical questions that future research might explore include the following. First, what are the theory bases that might give us a better understanding of this relationship? The extant literature is full of studies that are anchored in the contingency and the configurational theories, but other theories/paradigms, such as agency theory, transactions cost economics, the resource based view, and social exchange theory might be fruitful avenues of inquiry in explaining the strategy making-strategic performance relationship.For example, agency theory may shed greater light on the impact of principal-agent relationships on product introduction rollouts in international markets and how these might shape the strategy formulation-strategic performance linkage. Social exchange theory might explore the significance that such constructs as trust, commitment, forbearance, and lack of opportunism might render on this relationship. The resource based view might explain the significance of the role played by the interdependence among the firm’s affiliates as they share certain types of esources; participate in decision-making contexts; and leverage capabilities across the firm’s network in the strategy making-strategic performance link. Second, what is the role of culture in defining and predicting the outcomes of the strategy-performance link? Culture, for instance, might influence conce ptualizations of the degree of control desired, what it means to be autonomous or interdependent, what kinds 190 A. Yaprak et al. f gains autonomy and interdependence might bring to subsidiaries and how desired these might be, and how norms and values might shape value chain configurations and levels of adaptations needed in different markets. Third, what role does time play in the shaping of this relationship? Longitudinal studies might show, for example, that the strategy making-strategic performance link changes in short time frames for some products, medium time frames for others, and long time frames for still others.Finally, are there other dimensions of strategy and/or performance that should be considered and how might these interact with the three discussed in this paper? For example, the firm’s position along its internationalization path or the level of its participation in its global markets might be dimensions that need to be considered more formally to better un derstand the strategy-performance relationship. The interactions among these and the dimensions already considered in the literature are also worthy of further study.Our purpose is to depict a more comprehensive picture of the strategy formulationstrategic performance relationship in international business and to suggest that the interplay among strategy, structure, and processes of the firm mediates that relationship. 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Admission Essay with 4 sections Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Admission with 4 sections - Essay Example In today’s business environment trends are changing quite dramatically and it is not possible to rely on experience only. Only professional education can help a person grow in potential in the realm of business and this is the main reason why I have opted for masters in business administration. This degree will help me cultivate newer ideas about management and will also aid the experience that I have accumulated over the years in supply chain management, project management, and manufacturing. Practical experience is very important in any field but I have realized that latest professional education of high standards can help me more in perfecting my management skills. I also believe that there is no age limit for acquiring education, especially in a today’s fast moving world. Trends are changing at a remarkable pace and newer techniques are changing the business environment on a regular basis. It is important to keep up with the latest trends and therefore at the age of 52 I have decided to enter into an MBA program. Age should not be a barrier for gaining knowledge especially if it can positively impact a person. I think that every learned human being can also contribute to the society. Education guides us in our social relationships and this positively impacts the society. I have chosen to pursue a master’s degree in business administration as it will help me in my professional life. Job market has become competitive and it is important to enhance our skills in order to gain a competitive edge over others. An MBA degree will put me above my competition as I have a vast amount of experience in management already. Learning the latest management techniques will help me improve my skills to a great extent and therefore I see my age as a positive point. My choice of Cheung Kong Graduate School of Business was not random. I was looking for an institution that will provide me with a high quality of education and at the

Combined joint task force-horn of Africa Research Paper

Combined joint task force-horn of Africa - Research Paper Example Terrorism has been one of the key issues in countries such as Yemen, Djibouti, Sudan, Ethopia, Eriteria, Somolia, and Kenya, commonly known as Horn of Africa. Lot of efforts and key strategies have been formulated over a period of time to counter this menace One such effort to combat terrorism was the establishment of a Combined Joint Task Force which was formed to address the issues of terrorism in Horn of Africa.The paper understudy is aimed at giving an overview of this task force and its operations typically in Kenya The paper understudy is aimed at giving an overview of this task force and its operations typically in Kenya with a view to address the efforts launched in by this team in combating and reducing terrorist activities. Moreover, it also accentuates on the manner in which the contribution of Kenya with respect to war on terrorism has attracted the United State’s attentions and interest in the region. The establishment of Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa took place on 19  October, 2002  (Combined Joint Task Force- Horn of Africa, 2011)  in North Carolina under the oversight of United State Central Command. CJTF - Horn of Africa conducts operations in East Africa, namely in Yemen, Djibouti, Sudan, Ethiopia, Criteria, Somalia and Kenya to build and foster an effective counterterrorism partnership. This was done to promote regional security, ensure stable conditions within the horn of Africa AOR, oversee conflict and dispute prevention, and safeguard and protect the interest of the United States and its allies. Prior to the creation of the CJTF – Horn of Africa, Kenya was plagued by rampant, unchecked terrorism that had impacts within the local, regional and global theaters. Once established however, Kenya’s ability to combat terrorism within the horn of Africa AOR bolstered dramatically.  Ã‚   The discussion of CJTF - Horn of Africa would remain incomplete without its role in Kenya which holds a very substantial and significant place in the war against terrorism. Many experts have regarded Kenya as a harbor of increasing terrorist activities and branded it as a helpless state victimized by waves of terrorism throughout the country. In 2003 the Government of Kenya accepted that western countries had been targeted by a possible member of the Al Qaeda network, affirming the potential of Al Qaeda operating within national boundaries. Beginning with a bombing attack on the American Embassy  (Ploch, 2011), the country’s capital showed signs of terrorist activities as far back as 1998.  Ã‚  The acknowledgement from government however, came very late. Since then, Kenya has become a regular victim of groups having international terrorism expertise. Further investigation determined that poor immigration laws and security legislature have greatly contributed to  the terrorism flourishing in the region. The cells in Kenya were completely under control by foreign groups from within the Gul f States and Somalia.  Ã‚  These groups eventually involved locals, helping them to establish their businesses and using these as fronts for their networks. The leaders of these Kenyan Cells were found to have connections with the Al Qaeda network and disappeared soon after the attacks on the US embassy. The government, in cooperation with FBI, then made endeavors to destroy these Al Qaeda controlled cells in various parts of country, including arrests in July and November of 2001 of Yemeni and Somali people.  Ã‚  Despite of all these efforts, the situation in Kenya never fully regained control and an Israeli airliner was shot down in Mombasa in  2002. The investigation led to another connection with Al Qaeda and revealed terrorist control over major elements of the national security system, as evident by their transportation of surface-to-air missile which was fired at an American military jet at the Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia  (Menkhaus, 2011). After this devel opment, the Kenyan government officially acknowledged the

Combining Content, Argument, and StructureThe Workshop Research Paper

Combining Content, Argument, and StructureThe Workshop - Research Paper Example As such, she or he is unable to perform optimally in the workplace. Similarly, the anti-harassment policy will ensure that all workers operate on a level-playing ground where they all enjoy their rights as they work. Infringing a worker’s rights hampers their output. For example, the workers will not feel at ease while visiting some of the offices in the workplace. This is equally important to the CEO in ensuring the performance of workers improves (Strauss, 2011). For example, when workers are treated fairly and equally, it hugely boosts their morale thereby leading to higher output per worker. Where there is harassment, unfairness and inequalities it is difficult to instill teamwork resulting in overall organizational failure. It is critical to instill sexual harassment policies in a working environment owing to a number of reasons. First, people have rights which should be upheld and duly protected. Sexual harassment interferes with a person’s rights (Baker, 2007). Secondly, sexual harassment goes a long way in negatively affecting people’s lives both the perpetrator’s and the victim’s. Without respect for individual workers an organization will experience high staff turnover as workers seek better working environments. Communicating about sexual harassment or other forms of disrespect should not be a problem. The CEO should first sensitize the workers on the need for a firm anti-sexual harassment policy. Above all, this is a criminal offense that is punishable by law. After sensitization, the CEO should give a memo listing and elaborating the need for the anti-sexual harassment policy. The CEO could also indulge occasional emails and letters to update the workers on how the p olicy is changing the

Trends in collective bargaining in the ukadvantages and disadvantages Essay

Trends in collective bargaining in the ukadvantages and disadvantages of employees in collective bargaining and an assessment of it - Essay Example Nowadays it is being chiefly used for financial purposes and social issues. Recently there has been less centralized collective bargaining in the UK. In regard to this Fox states "[Collective bargaining] has often been seen as, though not by all pluralists, not only as leveling up employee power to an acceptable approximation of that of management, but also as reinforcing government social welfare and redistribute policies in gradually reducing class difference." (Fox, 1985:22) In the UK collective bargaining is treated as the most useful and efficient form of bargaining which can help the workers to regulate their terms and conditions of service in consideration with ILO Convention 84. Nevertheless, the significance of collective bargaining in the United Kingdom and in the other parts of the industrialised world has minimized after the 1980s.Its turn down in the government sector comes from the growth of Review Body arrangements (Jackson, Leopold, Tuck, Katz 1995). A collective bargaining agreement helps the employees to look for progress in wages, hours of working and work environment. In other words it is a base through which the employees can voice their demands but these agreements sometimes can lead to difficult consequences such as strikes. However after the mid 1990s a considerable increase is seen in the partnership deals between the unions and the employers. These agreements allow the employees to have a greater sense of job security and strong p osition in the company. In UK agreements have been made so that the performance is improved by making a chance in organization or improving the relationships with other industries (e.g. Tesco etc). Collective bargaining has made a way for the trade unions to rise and the trade unions in the recent years are stressing on their functions in improving the business performance. Workers are joining the trade unions because of the lack of job security in the firms. Trade Unions have accepted the management offers to negotiate partnership agreements. This new way adopted by them is causing more members to join them and is helping the trade unions to get identification in the non union companies. The Trade Union Congress has formed a Partnership Institute which offers guidance and help to organization who want to build up good relations between unions, employers and employees. One such example which involves collective agreements is Barclays Bank and UNIFI. Strikes were caused in the firm d ue to the belief of upcoming job losses and salary disputes. An agreement was reached between the management and the employees in April 1999. The agreement reached helped the employees to get job security and hence helped them to improve the quality of life. (Industrial Relations Services Employment Trends 715, November 2000).Collective bargaining is a process which provides the employers or the management to deal with the problems of the employees equally. If the general areas of interests are emphasized in collective bargaining it can help to develop an approval of common interests by the employees (Purcell, 1979). The feeling of equality and general interests being fulfilled will help the workers to be satisfied, would lessen disagreements and create an environment of stability within the company for the employees. It can lead to equal pay for all the workers ding the same work and this would provide a social benefit. Equality is

Project Management White Paper Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Management White Paper Report - Essay Example Application of project management tools, techniques and skills will generally increase the probability of success over a wide range of projects. The Project Management Institute (PMI) has produced a guidebook to project management which contains recognized best practices standard for project management. It is incumbent upon the urban planners to apply the practices in a way befitting urban planning and development projects. 1.2 Urban Planning Project Characteristics Urban planning projects can generally be characterized as complex, interdependent projects which are mostly dependent on public needs and urban policies. Rapid transformations in the urban environment through new developments, population increases, improvement in technology and concern for environmental conservation make urban planning projects highly reliant on high quality project managers. ... The white paper anticipates that application of these project management principles will ensure that urban planning projects are acceptable to the beneficiaries of the projects, mainly urban developers and dwellers. This paper will briefly highlight the most critical principles and procedures of project management that are applicable in urban planning while providing examples of tools and guidelines that are already being used in urban planning project management. Basically, a structured approach to the execution of urban planning projects produces results that are beneficial to both the planners and beneficiaries of the project. 3. DISCUSSION 3.1 Technology Readiness in Urban Planning Technological development is now advanced in all fields including urban planning where various kinds of new technology are available for use in various areas. It is quite useful to apply structured evaluation of technology readiness in urban planning project execution. A Technology Readiness Scale (TRL ) can be applied in the assessment and communication of technology readiness in urban planning. This is a simple scale that is graded to measure the technology ranging from its lowest level of readiness (First application after development) and its highest level where application of the technology has been proven through successful implementation and operation. It is through technology readiness measurement that project teams can identify critical technology to assist in the accomplishment of urban planning project goals. 3.2 Progressive Scope Urban Planning projects can generally be characterized by two main phases where development plans are prepared through research and development of architectural, and implementation which largely consists of demolitions and construction. The key

Business Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Communication - Essay Example Nervousness leads to confusion during the presentation; hence one should calm down through relaxation methods including deep breathing and drinking a lot of water. The use of audio visual aids makes presentation easier especially when covering a technical issue. The steps that should be followed in meeting the expectations of the audience are by knowing them before the presentation, mingling with them as well as engaging them in the presentation. Audiovisual aids are efficient tools when it comes to making business presentations. This is because audiovisual aids are more effective in demonstrating figures and trends in business. 2The use of audio visual aids allows the audience to be more engaged in the presentation. They help to make the presentation more understandable and memorable. To demonstrate how the net sales have increased over the years, audiovisual aids are effective as they can be easily understood and are memorable. This information can be represented using various ways . The best way is by use of line graphs that show the amount of sales over the years. The other method is by use of bar charts which are appropriate for all forms of numerical comparisons. These are the two methods that can be used to represent the data appropriately. There are different ways of ensuring connection with the audience and responsiveness to their specific needs. There is the need to create a rapport with the audience before the presentation starts. This is by talking to them before the presentation begins which creates a chance to connect with them. Maintaining eye contact throughout the presentation establishes a connection with the audience. 1The presentation should be in a simple and convincing manner. The presenter connects with the audience by approaching the presentation from their perspective. The presenter shows responsiveness to the needs of the audience, as stated earlier, by getting to know them before the presentation. This can also be done by paying specia l attention to their body language and facial expression as it helps them to determine their feelings about the presentation and act accordingly. An example of a chronological resume Name Street Town Address Cell OBJECTIVE Searching for a vacancy where I can apply my knowledge and skills as a market analyst in a highly competitive business environment. STRENGTHS AND SKILLS Committed, diligent, visionary and a peoples person. Proficient in conducting market research and analysis. Excellent analytical capabilities. Exemplary public speaking and presentation skills. EXPERIENCE 2011 to present Employer Has worked for Motion as a market analyst for research in a highly competitive climate where new phone models are introduced. Position A market analyst Responsibilities Conducting market research. Analyzing trends in the market. Making monthly, quarterly and annual presentations to the members at the head office. 2009- 2011 Employer Matrix Company Position Research assistant Responsibilit ies Conducting market research. Compiling data collected from market researches. General office work. EDUCATION Bachelor of Business in Marketing, November 2007, Illinois State University, Illinois. There are basic steps that should be followed in the presentation to ensure the message is passed. This is by keeping it

Using a modified social story to decrease disruptive behavior of a Article

Using a modified social story to decrease disruptive behavior of a child with autism - Article Example There are different methods to using Social Stories, each having their own strengths and weaknesses when used with children. As children with autism are mostly visual learners, various mediums can be used when doing the Social Stories. In some examples, multimedia was used, though the effects of this method were inconclusive, as were many other methods in Social Stories. Just as each child is different in their autism, they will also be different in how they approach and take heed to the Social Stories. While, during the research, the behaviors of these children have decreased, there is still no definitive "one method" that works best. Each child will need to have their own individual Social Stories methods if teachers, parents, and researchers alike want to see any changes in their behavior. The use of verbal reminders throughout the sessions, though, proved to have more of an effective in quickly discouraging misbehavior, as shown through a study by Ivey et al. (2004). However, this method of verbal repetition might not work as well in other methods of the Social Stories, and may not be as effective on children with autism as a whole. Again, what works best for each child depends solely on each child. The use of Social Stories seems to me to be a promising method of instilling in autistic children the proper behavior to use in a social setting, such as in a classroom. Various methods have been tested and have been proven to work and be beneficial to a childs life and education. Unfortunately, as there are many autistic children, there must be equally as many methods of Social Stories, since each child is different in their learning and comprehending, though they do share the common aspect of being visual learners. It is obvious that the Social Stories methods do work, it is just a matter of deciding which method works best for which autistic child. The use of verbal prompts and reminders has shown to be most effective, so

Ethical issues Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ethical issues - Article Example This is whereby human resource managers face the task of making sure employees are competent to work in the decentralized setting as opposed to how it was before. Employees will have to be able to adapt to the virtual desk to incorporate the concept of flexible work arrangements are incorporated. (Misra, 2009) Another crucial challenged encountered is the global business concept which entails that with the fast growing organizations and the world becoming a global village, human resources managers should be knowledgeable about different cultures traditions and business practices so as to be at per with the globalization process. Thus, a need to keep them always informed on global and international issues. (Misra, 2009) Managing the performance of employees has also been a key area of concern as many human resource managers are not fully aware of all field expectations. Thus, they are incapable of determining performance levels of employees and as a result, fail to access level of competence of employees. Incorporation of all sub systems in human resource management has also proved to be a cog in the wheel. For efficient performance to be achieved, it is vital that the existing departments correlate in order to produce a smooth running department. (Mathis,

Endangered Species Should Not Be Protected Essay Example for Free

Endangered Species Should Not Be Protected Essay Protection from extinction of endangered species has always been one of the more popular advocacies of environmentalists. So popular is this cause that any expression of indifference, or more than that, opposition, is certain to elicit a public uproar. This paper intends to argue against the protection of endangered species, citing three supporting arguments: (1) protection is against evolutionary theory, (2) recovery plans are vague relative to cost and time, and (3) laws pertaining to protection are biased. With regard to the first argument, the extinction of a species of flora / fauna is a natural occurrence that is necessary for the maintenance of balance in the world. Having said this, the protection of endangered species from probable extinction is unhealthy in the sense that it is an act of interference to nature’s way of upholding the natural disposition of things. Such a stand is not cruel, nor is it misguided, as most environmental advocates might propose. In fact, the statement is a practical application of the (in)famous theory of natural selection by Charles Darwin, wherein he purports that the extinction of a specie is not random nor wrong because it is an expression of the specie’s inability to survive in its current environment. This is exactly what is happening to the endangered species at present. It may be argued that Darwin’s theory is acceptable only in so far as extinction due to â€Å"natural causes† is concerned. But what is a â€Å"natural cause† for extinction? In response to this anticipated objection, let us digest the argumentation and its logic. If causes attributed to man can not be considered natural then it may be said that at present, no cause will ever be considered a â€Å"natural cause†. If there is no â€Å"natural cause† then, one can say that all incidents of extinction are unnatural. Following this line of argument we must then conclude that Darwin’s theory is therefore false, since it is implied in his work that change is constant in the environment, and with every change there is a species that is at the brink of extinction because it cannot adapt to the change. But Darwin’s theory of evolution has been proven to be true; hence, what is the most logical line of reasoning one can pursue? Since man is a species, his activities, albeit identified by environmentalists as the cause of the endangerment of species, can be construed as the â€Å"natural cause† of extinction of certain plants and animals. Hence, in â€Å"Causes of Endangerment† (Kurpis) the three major factors / causes (with a fourth one being a conjunction of minor factors such as pollution and limitations in distribution) advocates of specie protection have determined as causes of extinction due to man, namely: habitat destruction, overexploitation, and introduction of exotic species, are not â€Å"wrong† or â€Å"evil† but manifestations of the adaptation the human specie has undertaken and is undertaking. It is â€Å"survival of the fittest† at its finest. The second argument of this paper utilizes the report of the United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) entitled â€Å"Endangered Species: Time and Costs Required to Recover Species are Largely Unknown†. Succinctly put, the second point against the protection of endangered species is that time and resources which may and should have been channeled to other causes are poured into an advocacy that has no time limit and has no definite budget. Such an investment is an obvious waste of resources, resources that could have benefited the greater good. In the report, dated April 6, 2006, the GAO specified that under the Endangered Species Act, all recovery plans are required to â€Å"incorporate, to the maximum extent practicable: (1) site specific management actions, (2) time and cost estimates for completing site specific management actions, and (3) recovery criteria† (â€Å"Endangered Species†, 11). Of the 107 plans under scrutiny by the GAO, an overwhelming 73 plans had no definite time-line relative to recovery of the endangered species they represent, and of the remaining 34, 27 indicated a timetable of 10-50 years before the species are recovered (â€Å"Endangered Species†, 18). Aside from that, 87 of the 107 plans failed to indicate cost estimates (â€Å"Endangered Species†, 19) – with the â€Å"cost† here excluding other financial concerns which may be attributed to the protection of endangered species. These facts present the alarming reality in the realm of endangered specie recovery, reality which points to evident wastage of resources with unpredictable results. It is one thing to commit to a cause; funding a futile exercise of human sympathy to the brink of foolishness is another. The third and final argument of this paper states that laws pertaining to endangered specie protection and recovery are biased. As a disclaimer, the author has not had the opportunity to peruse all the laws concerning endangered species; what is meant by â€Å"laws† here is the usual steps undertaken by any government to protect endangered species, such as placing them in an enclosure and passing bills that protect them from hunting (regardless of purpose) by man. To begin, the website â€Å"www. endangeredspecie. com† provides an essay that answers the question of why endangered species should be saved. In a nutshell, the site purports that â€Å"plants and animals hold medicinal, agricultural, ecological, commercial and aesthetic/recreational value† (Kurpis) and hence, should be protected â€Å"so that future generations can experience their presence and value† (Kurpis). As previously mentioned, â€Å"protection† more often than not consists of placing a specie in a reservation, and under a security blanket of laws that defend them from being hunted for any reason. With regard to the farmer, it is but common sense to arrive at the conclusion that the maintenance of a reservation, or an enclosure is financially straining and is a waste of viable land (in the case of reservations) which can be utilized for the greater good. The main reason for protecting an endangered specie is its promise of possessing medicinal, agricultural, or any other beneficial attribute; what if the specie turns out to be â€Å"useless† after years and years of protection? The whole project, then, of protecting it because of its â€Å"promise† is reduced to being a waste of an exercise. The land and other resources used could have been channeled elsewhere. Extinction of certain species who can not adapt to change should not be regarded as injurious to nature, it is a mere natural progression in the evolutionary theory. In the consideration of natural causes to extinction we must regard all species as equal, including man. Despite the efforts of environmental advocates to either place man on a pedestal as protector or belittle man as a cause of destruction, in the natural consideration of things, man is nothing but a very successful animal in the environment. Meaning all species of flora and fauna have the natural opportunity to adapt and change as the environment requires it. If certain populations of man gain power of the land, it is not an effect of unnatural causes but a normal progression of change and survival. The acts of man are not unnatural, they are only acts using complicated tools and structures. As such, those species that can not adapt and survive are not victims but rather those that can not transition into the changed environment. Exhausting resources to protect such weak species is not only futile, as Darwin already explains that the weak will not survive, it is also reckless in that resources, limited as they are, can be allocated to more productive causes. Acts of protectionism in a false hope of finding usefulness is a gamble very similar to the lottery. While these individuals gamble resources in a blind pursuit, man and many other stronger species suffer. Works Cited Kurpis, Lauren. â€Å"Why Save Endangered Species? † EndangeredSpecie. com. 13 April 2009 http://www. endangeredspecie. com/Why_Save_.htm This is an essay that highlights principal values of flora and fauna and the reasons to which endangered species should be saved or protected. Among the reasons cited for the protection on animals are medicinal, agricultural, ecological, commercial and aesthetic value of plants and animals. Through this essay it is meant to communicate that because all flora and fauna can be found to contribute a purpose, even aesthetic, then they are useful or potentially useful and should be protected. Kurpis, Lauren. â€Å"Causes of Endangerment. † EndangeredSpecie. com. 13 April 2009 http://www. endangeredspecie. com/causes_of_endangerment. htm A discussion on the reasons for the occurrence of endangerment of species, this is a discussion of the responsibilities of man as a protector of species and as the major cause for the occurrence of endangerment. The discussion here centers on the act of man that invade the environments of fauna and flora causing an imbalance. The author claims that man is the principal cause of imbalance in the environment victimizing other species, as such the protection of such species should be the responsibility of man. U. S. Government Accountability Office. â€Å"Endangered Species: Time and Costs Required to Recover Species are Largely Unknown. † 6 April 2006. U. S. Government Accountability Office. 13 April 2009 http://gao. gov/ This report focuses on the evaluation of the laws and regulations enacted under the authority created by the Endangered Species Act of 1973. This evaluation focuses not on the successes of the act but on the efforts of protection launched under its authority and how these projects were particularly created and enacted. This report examines 107 protection plans as regards its goal, planning and achievement.

Case Study the Kader Toy Factory Fire

Case Study the Kader Toy Factory Fire GROUP MEMBERS : SHAIKH MOHD AIMAN BIN SEFF AHMAD MUHAMMAD SUHAIL BIN MOHD ISA   MUHAMMAD ABDUL FATAH BIN ABDULLAH   MOHAMAD ZHAFRI BIN ZAILAINI MUHAMMAD ARIF BIN MUSA Case study the Kader toy factory fire Kader toy factory which located near Bangkok, Thailand was a fire on 10 May 1993. It can be considered the worst-ever factory fire in history. There were 188 workers died and 469 others who were injured. Most of them were young female workers and from rural area. The factory was owned by a Thai transnational corporation, Charoen Pokphand (CP) Group and one of Asia’s largest agribusiness firms. The Kader toy factory used to manufacture stuffed toys and plastics dolls mainly planned for export to the United States and other counties. There were produced forDisney,Matteland others. The site that owned and operated by Kader has been destroyed in the blaze of fire. Kader has another two sister companies that on a contract that operated at that location. PART A There were several factors that lead to this fire. Firstly, the factory was designed and built poorly. Fire exits drawn in the map or building plans were not exists; in fact not constructed, and the existing exit doors were locked. Furthermore, the building was strengthened with un-insulated steel girders which rapidly lessened and crumbled when heated by the flames. The malfunctions of fire alarms were the other factors that lead to the fire. There were four buildings on the Kader site, three of which were destroyed by the fire. The three buildings were designed a single E-shaped structure (see figure 1). Close at hand were a one-storey workshop and another four-storey structure pointed to as Building Four. Three buildings which involved in these incident Fire alarms in Buildings Two and Three had sounded and all the workers from these buildings were able to escape. Unfortunately, for Building One, the fire alarm did not sound. This part of the building was wholly committed to the storage of finished products and the fire spread quickly. The other factories were full of raw materials which also burned very quick. The fire spread extremely quickly when the Firefighters arrived at the factory, and found Building One nearly ready to collapse because of the occurrence of the combustible plastics and fabrics. Next, although each building at the plant was provided with a fire alarm system, none of the buildings had automatic sprinklers. The portable extinguishers and hose stations were installed on outside walls and in the stairwells of each building but none of the structural steel in the building were fireproofed.In addition, Kader factory did not provide its workers with decent fire safety training and the rigid security procedures. Fire drills and fire safety training were also minimal. Figure 1.Site plan of the Kader toy factory In Thailand, the Kader fire incident made a great deal for the country’s fire safety measures, especially its building code design requirements and enforcement policies. Thai Prime Minister, Minister Chuan Leekpai has made a tough action for those who violate the safety laws regarding the fire safety issues. According to theWall Street Journal(1993), Thai Industry Minister Sanan Kachornprasart is quoted that saying that â€Å"Those factories without fire prevention systems will be ordered to install one, or we will shut them down†. The leaders, safety expert and officials said that this incident would help fasten building codes and safety regulations but unfortunately, that lasting progress is still far off as employers scoff rules and governments permit economic growth to take priority over worker safety. The fire has also attracted international debate about foreign investors’ obligation for ensuring the safety of the workers in their sponsoring country because foreign interests owned majority of the shares of Kader Industrial (Thailand) Co. Ltd. 79.96% of the Kader shareholders are from Hong Kong, 20% are from Taiwan, and only 0.04% of Kader is owned by Thai nationals. A tragic industrial fire in Thailand the Kader Toy Factory fire was a fire on 10 May 1993 located in the NakhonPathom Province of Thailand. It can be considered the most focused worldwide industrial factory fire in history where officially 188 workers were killed, and over 500 were seriously injured, many seriously and also permanently. To avoid being burnt to death, they were forced to leap from second, third and fourth floors of the buildings. Most of the victims were young female workers from rural families. Moreover, this disaster was assumed as worst accidental that related to the loss of life fire in industry in history of Thailand. In addition, many of the articles was pointed due to the underlying the world changes capitalist economy that causes such a tragedy accident ever. As we all know, the previous worst industrial fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist factory in New York in 1911. Despite the years between these two disasters, they share striking similarities. In order to take the advantages of newest area of low cost labour, the company such as Kader Holding needs or should replace their operation regularly. As the result the Kader factory outside Bangkok was never intended to be a permanent structure just a temporary structure only as an instance the cheap shoddy buildings, which detected failed to achieve even the minimal Thai construction requirements, were simply packed to overflowing with workers and with their machines. Vitality safety precautions were deemed not necessary overheads. A decade later, the condition that Thailand’s workers and other Asian countries have significantly worst. Moving into a global economy connote that products are manufactured at specific location and used at other locations end-to-end the world.Having a temptation for competitiveness in this new market should not head to settle by concession in fundamental industrial fire safety provisions. There is a moral responsibility to provide workers with a sufficient level of fire protection, no matter where they are located. PART C Three proposals can improve factory safety: 1) the government need to create an independent occupational safety and health (OSH) group with regulatory powers because the government cannot generate enough money to allow civil servants to enforce OSH laws, it is doubtful that an independent group could finance itself, because it would have to be enormous, and consequently cost a fortune, to inspect all the factories concerned. Furthermore in 2000 more than two thirds of Thailand’s factories employed less than 10 workers, who are not legally protected by the Workmen’s Compensation Fund. It is unlikely that OSH standards in these factories could be policed by an outside group. 2) Increase trade union involvement in education and participation unfortunately it is improbable that campaigns by existing trade unions could effectively improve OSH accident or incident rates, since only three percent of workers in Thailand are organised into unions – the prevalence of factories with less than 10 workers as already noted, is a huge obstacle to serious improvement in the rate of worker organisation. 3) the company should Reform the OSH laws, the proposal to reform OSH laws misses the point. In both the Triangle Shirtwaist factory disaster and in the Kader fire, death tolls were so high because the buildings were illegally built or illegally operated or both. Had the laws been followed in 1911 New York and 1993 Bangkok, the fires would not have broken out in the first place, and in the case of Kader, the building would not have collapsed before the workers had escaped. These ideas are valuable components of an OSH system, but the only effective solution is for companies and governments to tackle OSH by letting workers control their own safety. Instead of repressing independent democratic trade unions, they must instead discourage the small companies that are often sweat shops, and alternatively advocate worker participation in democratic trade unions that represent all workers, and allow workers to inspect and bargain working conditions with employers. PART D References

Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs) Features

Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs) Features Definition: Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes or BACs are plasmids (circular DNA molecules) constructed with the replication origin of E.coli F’ Factor. F’ is an incompatibility group involved in E. coli conjugative ability and chromosomal transfer, which can exist as an extra-chromosomal element. 1st developed as a large insert cloning system to facilitate the construction of DNA libraries to analyze genomic structure. Technology was developed to carry out genetic and functional studies of viruses (herpes virus especially). Since then BACs application have grown intensely and have benefited the research community in many fields, such as in genomic fingerprinting, sequencing of the human genome, in vaccine development and in vitro transgenesis,. Characteristic features of BAC vectors The original BAC vector, pBAC108L, is based on a mini-F plasmid, pMBO131 (Figure 1) which encodes genes essential for self-repli ­cation and regulates its copy number inside a cell. The unidirectional self-replicating genes are oriS and repE while parA and parB maintain copy number to one or two for each E. coli genome. Multiple cloning sites is present, flanked by â€Å"universal promot ­ers† T7 and SP6, all flanked by GC-rich restriction enzyme sites for insert excision.   Presence of cosN and loxP sites(cloned in by bacteriophage l terminase and P1 Cre recombinase, respectively) permits linearization of the plasmid for convenient restriction mapping. There is a chloramphenicol resistance gene for negative selection of non-transformed bacteria. Vector is 6900 bp in length and is capable of maintaining insert DNA in excess of 300 kilobases (kb). Other BAC Vectors There have been many modifications done to increase the ease-of-use as well as for use in specific systems and situations.   pBeloBAC11 2 and pBACe3.6 are modified BAC vectors based on pBAC108L and are commonly used as a basis for further modification. pBeloBAC11 The primary characteristic of this vector is the addition of a lacZ gene into the multiple cloning site 2 of pBAC108L. Plates supplemented with X-gal/IPTG, an intact lacZ gene encodes b-galactosidase which catalyses the supplemented substrate into a blue substance. Successful ligation of insert DNA into the vector inactivates lacZ, generating white colonies, indicating the presence of a successful vector-insert ligation. It is still a low-copy number plasmid due to presence of parA and parB. Size of vector is 7507 bp in length. pBACe3.6 This vector is based on pBAC108L but is more highly modified than pBeloBAC11. In order to overcome the issue of low plasmid copy numbers, the P1 replicon in F’ was deleted and a removable high copy number replicon originating from an inserted pUC19 was introduced.   This vector contains 2.7 kb pUClink stuffer fragment which is flanked by two sets of six restriction sites within a sacB region. Levansucrase, a product of sacB gene, which converts sucrose (sup ­plemented in the media) to levan, which is toxic to E. coli host cells. Hence, if the vector is re-ligated without an insert, the functional sacB produces levansucrase and the cells die before forming colonies. Successful ligation of an insert into the vector increases the dis ­tance from the promoter to the coding region of sacB, disrupting toxic gene expression in the presence of sucrose. In addition to this vectors, there are many specialized BAC vectors carrying a variety of different combinations of drug resistance genes. Besides, many different selection mechanisms and markers are available. Modifications of cloning sites (unique restriction endonuclease sites) are also common as per the addition of genes and promoters specific to different strains of bacteria. Development of BAC vector Advantages of BAC Vectors The large size of BACs help to minimize site of integration effects, a phenomenon which has been defined as endogenous sequences (such as gene coding regions and distal regulatory elements) to be disrupted, and to produce potentially undesirable phenotypes in gene cloning technology. Endogenous gene expression more accurately than other cloning systems. The human genome BACs consist of the full gene structure(which play very important role in gene regulation). Therefore the human genome BACs will ensure full mRNA processing and splicing when genes are transcribed, and produce the full complement of protein isoforms once mRNAs are translated. It can be transfected and expressed in mammalian cell lines even if transfection efficiency and copy numbers are low. Disadvantages of BAC vectors A construct containing a large genomic fragment is likely to contain non-related genes which may lead to indirect, non-specific gene expression and unanticipated changes in the cell phenotype. Recombinant BAC constructs can be time-consuming and labor-intensive. The large size BAC DNA constructs are more easily degraded and sheard during manipulation before transfection. Applications of BAC vectors BACs are useful for the construction of genomic libraries but their range of use is vast. It spans from basic science to economically rewarding industrial research, and fields as prosaic as animal husbandry. In genomic analyses, it helps in determining phylogenetic lineage det between species. Helps in study of horizontal gene transfer and since bacterial genes are usually clustered, the ability of BAC vectors to accommodate large inserts has allowed the study of entire bacterial pathways. By isolating DNA directly from soil or from marine environments, the â€Å"metagenomes† of those organisms which are either uncultureable or are termed viable but uncultureable can be cloned into BAC vectors and indirectly studied. In industrial research fields where BAC vectors are invaluable tools in cataloguing novel genomes is in the discovery of novel enzymes. Work has been done on identifying enzymes that are involved in biopolymer hydrolysis or even radioactive waste management. BAC vectors have been instrumen ­tal in studying large double stranded DNA viruses both from an academic point of view and as a tool to develop improved vaccines. In genomic research, high throughput determination of gains and losses of genetic material using high resolution BAC arrays and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) have been developed into the new tools for translational research in solid tumors and neurodegenerative disorders. BAC technology is becoming the most upcoming method for genome sequencing. The technique uses an overlapping tailing part of large genomic fragments (150-200 kb) maintained within BACs. Every individual BAC is shotgun sequenced, where these large overlapping sequences of the BACs are assembled to produce the whole genome sequence. BACs have also been used in mammalian genome mapping, genomic imprinting, vaccine development, gene therapy and studies of the evolutionary history and functional dynamics of sex chromosomes have recently been possible using BAC libraries. YAC (yeast artificial chromosome) vectors Definition: Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) are plasmid shuttle vectors capable of replicating and being selected in common bacterial hosts such as Escherichia coli, as well as in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. They are of relatively small size (approximately 12 kb) and of circular form when they are amplified or manipulated in E. coli, but are rendered linear and of very large size(several hundreds of kilobases), when introduced as cloning vectors in yeast. Many different yeast artificial chromosomes exist as ongoing refinements of the initial pYAC3 and pYAC4 plasmids (Figure 1) constructed by Burke et al. (1987). Basic structural features of YACs were developed from the yeast centromere shuttle-plasmids (YCp) series. These are composed of double-stranded circular DNA sequences carrying the b-lactamase gene (bla) and the bacterial pMB1 origin of replication, thus conferring resistance to ampicillin and the ability to replicate in bacteria, respectively. YACs also contain the cloning site in the middle of the SUP4 suppressor of an ochre allele of a tyrosine transfer RNA gene; this enables restoration of the normal white color phenotype in otherwise red ade1 and/or ade2 nonsense mutants. Accordingly, in the insertional inactivation cloning process, the SUP4 gene is disrupted by the DNA insert, thus removing the suppression of the ade mutations and allowing their phenotypic expression as red color. They also include yeast ARS1 with its associated CEN4 DNAsequence, as well as the URA3 selectable marker. Biological Features of YACs The stability of YAC vectors in yeast per se is similar to that of natural chromosomes provided that all three structural elements (ARS, CEN and TEL) are present and functional, in addition, that the minimal required size is reached by the insertion of enough exogenous DNA. Indeed, several mutations are known to affect YAC stability and segregation together with natural chromosomes. Another important consideration is that faithful duplication of YACs is guaranteed only if other DNA sequences incompatible with ARS do not exist on the construct, particularly relevant when unknown DNA inserts are cloned in the YAC vector, as in the case for genomic libraries, in which there could be cryptic or otherwise unknown ARS-like sequences able to interfere with the ARS function. Construction of YACs Steps: Initially, purification of plasmid DNA is carried out. Two distinct digestions are performed: the first with BamHI that cuts twice adjacent to the two telomeric DNA sequences flanking the HIS3 gene, which therefore is excised from the plasmid and lost (Figure 2a). This first digestion generates a long linear fragment carrying telomeric sequences at each end. The second digestion consists of the opening of the cloning site within the SUP4 gene (Figure 2a). As a result of this second digestion, two linear fragments are produced as left and right arms of the future linear YAC (Figure 2b). Large DNA fragments with ends compatible to the cloning site, obtained from the desired genome source by digestion with an appropriate restriction endonuclease, are ligated with phosphatase treated YAC arms, to create a single yeast-transforming DNA molecule (Figure 2c). Primary transformants can be selected for complementation of the ura3 mutation in the host, and successively for complementation of the host trp1 mutation, thereby ensuring thepresence of both chromosomal arms. Transformant colonies containing the exogenous DNA insert within the SUP4 gene are detected by their red colour, due to the inactivation of the suppressor activity and the consequent accumulation of a red metabolic precursor in ade host cells. Applications of YACs Applications of YACs range from generating whole DNA libraries of the genomes of higher organisms to identifying essential mammalian chromosomal sequences necessary for the future construction of specialized mammalian artificial chromosomes (MACs). Helps in the study of regulation of gene expression by cis-acting, controlling DNA elements, that are present either upstream or downstream of large eukaryotic genes, after the transfer of these YACs from yeast to mammalian cells. YAC libraries has greatly advanced the analysis of genomes previously cloned in cosmid vectors. For example, YAC clones have been used as hybridization probes for the screening of cDNA libraries, thus simplifying the characterization of unidentified genes. Recent technological developments allow the transfer of YACs into mouse embryonal stem (ES) cells and the subsequent generation of transgenic mice. Investigators have begun to employ these artificial chromosomes for the in vivo study of multigenic loci in mammalian cells. Two process can be used to obtain a sequenced genome, or region of interest: 1. Physical Mapping. 2. Chromosome Walking. It allows for the detailed mapping of specific regions of the genome. With the help of this, whole human chromosomes have been examined, such as the X chromosome,generating the location of genetic markers for numerous genetic disorders and traits. Bibliography Smith, GA. Enquist, LW. 1999 A self-recombining bacterial artificial chromosome and its application for analysis of herpesvirus pathogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97; 4873-4878 Shizuya, H., Birren, B., Kim, UJ., Valeria, M., Slepak, T., Tachiiri, Y., Simon, M. 1992 Cloning and stable maintenance of 300-kilobase-pair fragments of human DNA in Escherichia coli using an F-factor-based vector. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 89; 879-8797 Fu, H., Dooner, HK. 2000 A gene-enriched BAC library for cloning large allele-specific fragments from Maize: Isolation of a 240-kb contig of the bronze region. Genome Res. 10; 866-873 Kim, UJ., Birren, BW., Slepak, T., Mancino, V., Boysen, C., Kang, HL., Simon, MI., Shizuya, H. 1996 Construction and characterization of a human bacterial artificial chromosome library. Genomics 34;213-218 Frengen, E., Weichenhan, D., Zhao, B., Osoegawa, K., van Geel, M., Jong, PJ. 1999 A modular, positive selection bacterial artificial chromosome vector with multiple cloning sites. Genomics 58; 250-253 Flotte, TR. 2000 Size does matter: overcoming the adeno-associated virus packaging limit. Respir. Res. 1; 16-18 Whitman, WB., Coleman, DC., Wiebe, WJ. 1998 Prokaryotes: the unseen majority. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 95; 6578-6583 Anderson, SI., Lopez-Corrales, NL., Gorick, B., Archibald, AL. 2000 A large-fragment porcine genomic library resource as a BAC vector. Mamm. Genome 11; 811-814 Heintz, N. 2001 BAC to the future: The use of BAC transgenic mice for neuroscience research. Nature Rev. Neur. 2; 861-870 Adler, H., Messerle, M., Koszinowski, UH. 2001 Virus reconstituted from infectious bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-cloned murine gammaerpesvirus 68 acquires wild-type properties in vivo only after excision of BAC vector sequences. J. Vir. 75; 5692-5696 Fischer CR (1969) Enzymology of the pigmented adenine requiring mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces. Biochemical Biophysical Research Communication 34: 306–310. Cross SH, Allshire RC, McKay SJ, McGill NI and Cooke HJ (1989) Cloning of human telomeres by complementation in yeast. Nature 338:771–774. Jakobovits A, Moore AL, Green LL et al. (1993) Germ-line transmission and expression of a human-derived yeast artificial chromosome. Nature 362: 255–258.